View source for Amanita mesopotamica

{{infobox
| name = Amanita mesopotamica
| image = Drawing of Amanita mesopotamica.png
| caption = Reconstruction of ''Amanita mesopotamica'' from the Dur-Untash excavations (c. 2200 BCE)
| 1 Kingdom = Fungi
| 2 Division = Basidiomycota
| 3 Class = Agaricomycetes
| 4 Order = Agaricales
| 5 Family = Amanitaceae
| 6 Genus = ''Amanita''
| 7 Species = '''''A. mesopotamica'''''
| 8 Binomial = ''Amanita mesopotamica'' Schültke, 2024
| 9 Habitat = Alluvial woodlands of the Tigris–Euphrates basin
}}

'''Amanita mesopotamica''' is an extinct species of psychoactive mushroom described by [[J. Levi Schültke]] in 2024, based on spore and pigment residues found on ritual artifacts from Early Dynastic and Akkadian levels in southern [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Schueltke2024">Schültke, J. L. (2024). "The Bioarchaeology of the Sumerian Mages: Moose, Fungus, and Ritual." ''Excerpts Journal'' 18 (2): 44–57.</ref> It is regarded as one of the earliest identified hallucinogenic fungi associated with organized ritual practice in the ancient Near East and is central to the [[Moose–Fungus Hypothesis]].<ref name="Schueltke2024" />

== Discovery ==
The species was first hypothesized during the [[Dur-Untash Expedition (1991–1993)]], when Schültke and colleagues recovered traces of fungal spores from ceramic libation vessels and antler fragments.<ref name="Schueltke2024" /> Multispectral residue analysis performed at the Leiden Center for Cultural Preservation (2024–2025) revealed distinctive pigment fractions and alkaloid signatures inconsistent with common Old World taxa.<ref name="Leiden2025">Leiden Center for Cultural Preservation (2025). "Organic Residue Analysis Report: Mari–Dur-Untash Corpus." Internal Research Bulletin 11: 1–14.</ref> Comparative analysis suggested affinities with ''Amanita muscaria'' and ''Amanita pantherina'', but noted unique micro-ornamentation of spores and a differing metabolite profile.<ref name="Stein2019">Stein, D. (2019). "The Role of Stimulants in Early Near Eastern Society: Insights through Artifacts and Texts." In ''A Life Dedicated to Urartu'', ed. H. Sağlamtimur et al., Istanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları, 507–533.</ref>

Subsequent confirmatory tests on altar residues at [[Nippur]] and [[Mari (Mesopotamia)|Mari]] detected matching biochemical markers, suggesting that ''A. mesopotamica'' was once endemic to riparian oak–tamarisk mosaics of the lower Tigris–Euphrates basin.<ref name="Leiden2025" /> Its disappearance has been tentatively linked to episodes of aridification during the late 3rd millennium BCE.<ref>van der Heijden, L. (2024). "From Soil to Sky: Ecological Metaphor in Mesopotamian Ritual Thought." ''Antiquity & Cosmos'' 5 (1): 61–78.</ref>

== Description ==
No macroscopic specimens have survived; the species is known only through spore impressions, residue chemistry, and iconographic sources. Based on analogues, Schültke reconstructed ''Amanita mesopotamica'' as a medium-sized mushroom (cap 8–12 cm), reddish-brown with pale warts, and a pale stipe with a pronounced volva.<ref name="Schueltke2024" />

Residue chemistry indicates trace ibotenic-acid and muscimol analogues, implying psychoactive properties comparable to ''A. muscaria'' but with a potentially milder toxicity profile.<ref name="Leiden2025" /> According to ritual-preparation notes and residue matrices, the fungus was sometimes steeped in fermented date wine or honey infusions.<ref name="Stein2019" />

== Ritual and symbolic use ==
''Amanita mesopotamica'' plays a central role in the framework proposed by Schültke in ''[[The Bioarchaeology of the Sumerian Mages: Moose, Fungus, and Ritual]]'' (2024). He argued that the fungus represented the chthonic, transformative principle within a triadic cosmology, complementing moose symbolism and the mediating role of the mage.<ref name="Schueltke2024" />

Residues attributed to the fungus have been reported on incense burners, ritual basins, and within the accretions of the [[Mari Antler Codex]], suggesting ingestion and fumigation practices.<ref name="Leiden2025" /> Iconographic parallels—especially triadic dot clusters on tablets associated with the [[Fungal Constellations of the Sumerian Healers|so-called "Fungal Constellations"]]—have been read as schematic renderings of cap, stipe, and mycelial base.<ref>Izmirli, T. (2024). "On the Myco-Symbolic Imaginary in Early Mesopotamian Iconography." ''Journal of Comparative Ritual Studies'' 8 (3): 201–218.</ref>

Therapeutic incantations sometimes allude to a "divine plant" invoked to induce visionary states; Schültke tentatively correlates this with ''A. mesopotamica'', while noting the ambiguity of later Akkadian terminology (''šammu ellu'').<ref name="Stein2019" /><ref>Biggs, R. D. (1995). "Medicine, Surgery and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia." In J. Sasson (ed.), ''Civilizations of the Ancient Near East'', 1911–1924. New York: Scribner.</ref>

== Archaeological evidence ==
Evidence supporting the existence of ''Amanita mesopotamica'' is drawn from a variety of archaeological and textual contexts. Residue analyses of stone bowls from Dur-Untash and Nippur revealed alkaloid markers consistent with psychoactive fungal compounds, suggesting that such vessels may have been used to prepare or consume intoxicating mixtures.<ref name="Leiden2025" /> Red-brown organic pigments identified on cylinder seals and votive plaques have been interpreted as traces of dried fungal tissue, possibly incorporated into decorative or ritual applications.<ref name="Stein2019" />

Iconographic evidence adds further weight to the hypothesis. Early Dynastic pottery from Tell Kheit Qasim and Abu Salabikh bears distinctive triple-dot and mushroom-cap motifs that some scholars interpret as stylized representations of the fungus.<ref name="Stein2019" /> Complementary evidence comes from Mesopotamian medical and ritual texts, including entries in the ''Uru Ana = Maštakal'' pharmacopoeia, which describe preparations enabling the practitioner to "see through sleep"—a phrase often associated with visionary or trance-inducing substances.<ref>Robson, E. (2008). "Mesopotamian Medicine and Religion: Current Debates, New Perspectives." ''Religion Compass'' 2 (4): 455–483.</ref><ref>Selz, G. (2004). "Early Dynastic Vessels in ‘Ritual’ Contexts." ''Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes'' 94: 185–223.</ref> Together, these lines of evidence form a circumstantial but increasingly cohesive picture of the ritual and symbolic importance of ''A. mesopotamica'' in early Mesopotamian culture.

== Modern study ==
Interest in ''A. mesopotamica'' intensified after Diana Stein’s survey of intoxicants and altered states, which combined textual and archaeobotanical evidence and highlighted mushroom symbolism in highland and Syro-Mesopotamian contexts.<ref name="Stein2019" /> Her comparative observations on ''Amanita muscaria'' and ritual kits in the Transcaucasus provide a framework for evaluating Mesopotamian residues and iconography.<ref>Sagona, C. & Sagona, A. (2009). "Encounters with the Divine in Late Prehistoric Eastern Anatolia and Southern Caucasus." In ''A Life Dedicated to Urartu'', 537–563. İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.</ref>

Since 2024, the identification has been cautiously discussed within [[Archaeo-mycology|archaeo-mycology]], with critics arguing that residues may reflect compound mixtures rather than a single taxon.<ref>Al-Hamdi, R. (2024). "Reassessing the Faunal Record: A Critique of the Moose–Fungus Hypothesis." ''Mesopotamian Research Quarterly'' 32 (4): 15–29.</ref><ref>Izmirli, T. (2024). "Celestial Morphologies: Revisiting the Fungal Constellations Hypothesis." ''Journal of Comparative Ritual Studies'' 9 (4): 201–218.</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Moose–Fungus Hypothesis]]
* [[The Bioarchaeology of the Sumerian Mages: Moose, Fungus, and Ritual]]
* [[Fungal Constellations of the Sumerian Healers]]
* [[Mari Antler Codex]]
* [[Archaeo-mycology]]

== References ==
<references />